Nuclear fusion would be a perfect energy source if it would work.

The image above this text portrait the plasma ring in the Tokamak-type fusion test reactor. The breakthrough in fusion power is that the fusion system will give back 70% of the energy that is used to ignite the fusion. That is the key to create the commercial and self-sustaining fusion reactor. 

Nuclear fusion is one of the most promising energy sources in the world. But the problem is how to make it create more energy than the ignition system pumps in there. The ignition of the fusion system happens by using laser, microwaves, and pressing the plasma with the magnetic field. The purpose of a magnetic pressurizer is to pressurize the plasma which will be ignited by using lasers. 

In some systems is used friction of the opposite moving plasma rays for boosting the energy level. There is also possible to increase the power in the ignition point of the fusion material by shooting it with ions that have opposite polarity. Or the ions with opposite polarity will shoot against each other. That thing will boost the energy level of the impact point and then increase the possibility of making the fusion. 

Natural fusion happens in stars. And it should be possible also on Earth. But the problem is how nuclear fusion is made in practice? Stars have thousands or even millions of years to start nuclear fusion.  In nature, that thing happens when the cloud of dust and gas is starting to rotate. And the friction rises temperature so high that it can begin the spontaneous fusion. The thing that starts fusion in the stars is temperature and pressure. 

In the Tokamak-type reactor, plasma is orbiting the nucleus in the ring-shaped accelerator. The mission of the magnetic system is just to keep the high-energetic plasma away from the wall of the fusion accelerator. 

In some other experimental systems, the reactor is like a ball. The fusion material will inject into the middle of the ball. And then there is targeted electromagnetic radiation. The last system is used in NIF (National Ignition Facility). The purpose of the NIF is also nuclear weapon development. 

The reason why the fusion reactor requires extremely high temperature. Is that the system must compensate the pressure in the nucleus of the stars by rising temperature. The problem is that creating the needed temperature requires energy. And if we want to make the fusion reactor the system must create more energy than it is used for the ignition. 

The temperature of the plasma is billions of degrees celsius. And that means the core of the fusion reactor will melt. So the system would use the pulse-type nuclear reaction. That means the plasma ring of the Tokamak-reactor is ignite in a short period. Then the pressure will get lower and the fusion shuts down. Then the process will repeat. The problem is that every pulse of the nuclear fusion should create more energy than the ignition needs. 

When the temperature of the plasma is rising extremely high level it will also transfer heat to the core of the reactor. And before the second fusion blink, the temperature must get lower because structures must stand the heat. And sooner or later there must keep a longer break in the power product of the fusion reactor. 

()https://www.euroweeklynews.com/2021/05/26/british-scientists-in-world-first-fusion-power-breakthrough/

()https://www.futuretimeline.net/blog/2021/08/20-fusion-energy-future-timeline.htm#:~:text=Fusion%20breakthrough%3A%2070%25%20yield%20from%20input%20energy%20The,%28ICF%29%20device%20and%20contains%20the%20world%27s%20largest%20laser.

()https://www.sciencealert.com/what-is-nuclear-fusion

()()https://wci.llnl.gov/facilities/nif

()https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor

The reason, why hydrogen bomb has so little fallout

The reason, why hydrogen bomb has so little fallout

The reason why this particular piece of nuclear technology causes so little radioactive fallout in the near of "ground zero" is that the rise of the fireball is so fast, that space, what is caused by the fast-rising piece of gas is pulling the dust and other material to the higher atmosphere with very high speed. The effect is similar to hover, the rise of the fireball just delivers the nuclear fallout to a very large area. And that means that the nuclear weapon itself is not so "clean". The "Tsar bomb" (1) was the "multi-stage" FFF (Fission Fusion Fission) weapon, where the fusion fuel was closed between the two layers of fissile material. 

This means that in the explosive capsule is at least two layers of Uranium 238 or natural uranium, and when the primary shot or normal fission weapon sends the radiation burst to those layers, the Uranium starts to turn to Plutonium, and the fission would press the fusion material to gather very hard. This will increase the power of the unit. That kind of weapon is creating pollution very much, but the high temperature causes that those radioactive particles will fly to the upper atmosphere. And nuclear waste is the main reason, why those tests ended in the atmosphere. 

The mystery of operation "Emery"

But after the ban of the atmospheric nuclear tests, the tests have made underground complexes. That means that pollution should not rise to the atmosphere. There have been made nuclear tests, where is happened accidents and mistakes. On December 18, 1970, something went wrong with "Operation Emery". Test "Baneberry"(2) caused huge radioactive fallout because that 10 kilotons nuclear warhead detonated too close of the surface. The depth of the shot was 950 feet (289.56 m)(3), and that was a little bit too close to the surface, and it was throwing the radioactive sand to the higher atmosphere. The cleaning that area took about 6 months, and there were questions, why the test team made that kind of mistake. 

The nuclear device was dug too close of surface, and the question was should that test be contain something, what is called a miniature nuclear weapon, or portable nuclear weapon. But the warhead was a switch, and the result was a disaster. If the size of the weapon could be only one kiloton, that depth could be enough. So were their errors in the nuclear test team papers? Or was "Baneberry" some kind of X-ray laser test?

In those tests, the nuclear weapon is used to create a high-power laser ray, and in some cases, there is a hole in the ground at the position of that device. This hole is made because the laser-ray must get a free route to the atmosphere, and if the structure is made wrong, that can cause the radioactive leak. So was this cause the "Baneberry " waste? That case caused claims about the deliberating break of the contract, which denies the atmospheric nuclear test. 

(1)

https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html 

(2)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Emery

(3)

https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Nts.html

Google: one foot to the metric system: 1 foot=0.3048 meter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBNhYOmEgy0

Fullerene based hydride materials are giving new ideas for researchers of technology.

Fullerene based hydride materials are giving new ideas for researchers of technology.

Silicon-carbon hybrid fullerenes can revolutionize materials and electric production. Those materials can be used as the fusion devices as well as creating the extreme hard layers.

Fullerenes and silicon are very interesting materials because both of them can be used as creating special layers for layers. If we think about graphene, what is one atom layer of carbon on the layer, that thing would make a very hard surface. And the thing is that the graphene can put on the surface as the dust, where the pencil would cover the entire layer, and then the laser would remove other atom layers away until there would be one atom layer of carbon on the surface.

That thing can revolutionize things like material research.  Graphene has many targets for use from the tools to the layers of aircraft and space technology. The lightweight and extremely hard surfaces have many kinds of purposes in every target from everyday life to space technology. It can use to create harder components for mobile devices but the problem is how to remove extra atom layers from the graphite?

But the thing, what makes graphene more fascinating is that the technology, what is used to create this material can be used also for creating one atom layers from other elements. That means that the graphene would be very nice material itself, but it can be used in the same way the part of hybrid materials. In some scenarios, the graphene layer would be covered by a similar one atom layer of silicon, which makes the layer a very lightweight solar panel.

This kind of thing makes possible to create revolutionary aircraft and another kind of solutions. That kind of technology would improve the abilities of the long-range aircraft like U-2, which are used for extremely long-range intelligence operations. The graphene itself gives to that plane very hard covering layer, but if those layers could also produce electricity, that means that the layer would give more benefit to that aircraft.

One of the things is that those aircraft would need less fuel, and they can even shut down their engines during the flight because the solar panels would give electricity to the systems of that aircraft. And if the aircraft can glide in some parts of their missions, they would make longer operations.

Silicon- carbon hybrid fullerene would make possible to create an extremely small-sized fusion device, which can be launched by using simply the light. And this thing would make it interesting. That thing can use in the spacecraft, what is operating like "Orion", but uses fusion devices for giving the thrust. Replacing fission bombs by fusion, that vehicle could be more ecological.

But when we are thinking about the extremely large fullerene ball, what have billions of carbon atoms, we might think the situation, where that ball would cover by using the silicon atoms. Or it is simply put inside the silicon ball, that thing could make an interesting phenomenon. If there are small antennas inside the fullerene ball, what can be the metal atoms, that thing could create the electric arc inside that ball, and then there would be some gas like deuterium and tritium (or lithium), it can start the fusion reaction.

Of course, there is no need to be billions of carbon atoms in this kind of fullerene ball. Normal 110 atom fullerene, where is another layer of silicon atoms would make possible to create this kind of fusion reactor, which can have very many solutions like in the fusion rockets to nuclear weapons. The fusion rocket would shoot those fullerene pallets behind the spacecraft, and then the radio impulse would hit to them, which causes the explosion. But the silicon layer would make possible to use pure light in that kind of device.

The element Copernicium (Cn) (Element 112)

The element Copernicium (Cn) (Element 112)

Element 112 in the periodic table of elements or copernicium (chemical symbol: Cn)  is the 12th group of elements. That means this metal is so-called transition alcalde metal, and in the same group with mercury, zinc, and cadmium. That means that the copernicium might be liquid metal, and sometimes people have thought, that could the strange quicksilver, what is connected with UFO-power systems of high-energy lightweight nuclear reactors copernicium?

If we would someday benefit that kind of nuclear material in some still theoretical reactors, we must put that element in the particle accelerator, what would slow the time on the radioactive mass. The thing is that superheavy elements make possible to create extremely powerful, but small size reactors.

The problem is that storing those elements what can be existed is extremely difficult, and that means the benefiting of those particles would become in use of practical solutions in the future. But who knows what is going on those special laboratories, where this kind of research work is done. 

The evidence for that thing that the mysterious mercury could be copernicium is mentioned, that the longest life isotope of copernicium lifetime is 32 seconds, and the researchers should conclude the form of this element. But here we must say, that there have been only a couple of atoms of that element ever existed. The thing is that I don't know, what method the finder of that element used to produce copernicium. If that man used low-energy linear particle accelerator, that means that the production of a couple of atoms of copernicium would be easy, but this kind of things have a couple of problems if we would try to make this kind of things in practical life.

The first thing is that we must find two elements, what we want to use in a fusion reaction. Those elements should have ion form, what have different polarity because the opposite polarity would help to aim the ion ray. And then the ions would shoot through the particle accelerator to the chamber, where those atoms would connect if the fusion would have enough energy.

Or actually, the energy level must be precisely right, or the particles would destroy each other in the impact if the accelerators would operate in too high energy level. And fusion method has a couple of other problems. When the particles impact together, there is a possibility that part of them would turn to energy, and that's why we cannot produce any elements just by shooting two ionized lighter elements together.

At first, the energy level of the particle accelerator must adjust precisely right. Then the ion rays must target that way, the fusion would be possible. Aiming of the system is difficult, and then the spectroscope must aim at the right point. The camera what will take images of the spectrum line must operate with very high speed, that it can see the line, what the element, what has extremely short lifetime sends.

And those elements, what is researched in this way are very high radioactive. In fact, in theory, we could produce hundreds or thousands of new artificial elements, but the thing is that those elements must have some mean. Chemically the structure of the electron cores is always following the system what is involving in the periodic table of elements, but the spectroscope is the only way, how researchers can confirm the existence of the new element. The short existence along with the low number of those atoms makes chemical tests with those atoms impossible.

Ernst Rutherford and fusion and the writing about moscovium (element 115)

Ernst Rutherford and fusion and the writing about moscovium (element 115)

When we are talking about fission reaction, we must remember that depends on the point of view, who created the first nuclear reaction. If we talk about self-sustaining nuclear fission the man who created that reactor in the Cigaco University was Enrico Fermi and the man who first split atom was Erns Rutherford. And Fermi benefits the work, what Rutherford made when he manufactured the first nuclear reactor. The thing what has sometimes introduced is to split some non-radioactive element like lead by bombing those atoms by using very high-speed electrons or ions.

This kind of technologies has seemed useless, and only material what could replace uranium in nuclear reactions could be thorium, and the idea is that the thorium atoms would bomb the high-speed ions during that reaction, and that technology is under study in many countries. Rutherford created an idea of a fusion reaction. When we are thinking about that era technology, the self-sustaining reaction was impossible, and the success means in this case that a couple of atoms could be connected.

In ITER homepage is mentioned that Rutherford along with his assistant Oliphant connected tritium Atom to Helium, but two atoms are not made fusion power. But there is a possibility that the fusion can be created by using particle accelerator. In that theory, the particle accelerator would shoot the ions in the chamber with very high power, and then that would make those particles melting together.

If the ions have different polarity, they should go together because of the magnetic pulling effect, what should make the use of fusion fuel more effective. But there are any problems with this kind of fusion reactors. The idea is to shoot ions by using "Y"-shaped structure of particle accelerators, where two tracks of accelerators what will accelerate the particles what have different polarity to the single point of the structure.

There have been introduced the theory that compiling two elements lead (element 58) and bismuth (element 33) by using fusion could create moscovium (element 115), what is claimed to produce in some places like AREA-51. There is another reaction in the Wikipedia page, which tells about this element. In this hypothetical reaction, the ions of the lead and bismuth will shoot together by using linear accelerators, and the moscovium would give extremely high power in the lightweight nuclear reactors.

We know that the moscovium is existed, but is there some effective and economical ways to produce so much about that element that it can be used in some kind of nuclear reactors. The half-time of moscovium is extremely fast, and that means that the element must be stored in the place, where are absolute zero points or zero Kelvin temperature what might slow the half of that material.

Or another version is to store that material in the particle accelerator, where it would accelerate to the speed, what will be near the speed of light, and that thing would slow the time in that material. But there is no evidence that this kind of systems has been tested in some places, except Bob Lazar statements, that he was working with the element 115 in AREA-51. But that man has not believed until the existence of element 115 has been confirmed.

There is no direction up and down in space (Project Daedalus)

There is no direction up and down in space (Project Daedalus)

There are some mistakes about the study project Daedalus, and one of them is that the craft must have the same mass of fuel for acceleration and braking, so the stages of Daedalus should be the same size. Or there must be some other thing like a solar sail, which would help the craft to break because the craft needs the same mass of energy for decreasing the speed than in the acceleration stage.

The solar sail can also be used as the giant brake, and it would open before the craft is coming near the Alpha Centauri, and then the particle flow from the star would decrease the speed of Daedalus. That means that it works like a giant airbrake when spacecraft is entering the other solar system. This project is an only theoretical study about the interstellar spacecraft.

When we are thinking Daedalus as the manned craft, we must realize that the floors of the craft can put in the vertical direction to the traveling direction. That means that the craft is moving to the direction, where the roof of the crew could be.

In the 1970s the British Interplanetary society designed many study projects with the interplanetary- and interstellar spacecraft.  Some of those designs were very fantastic, and one of the most remarkable ideas was to create saucer-shape spacecraft, which would use the interstellar ramjet for creating the energy. The system would be interesting, because the craft was short, and it would travel in the space like the larger part would be ahead. The ramjet system would suck the ions through the craft, and then those ions would be targeted with laser rays, which would make fusion possible.

That system would also create artificial gravity by using the speed of the craft for that thing. When the craft is traveling in a vertical direction comparing to the floor, that can create artificial gravity, and the craft is moving to the direction of the roof, as I have written before. 

But when we are thinking about the saucer shape craft we are always forgetting the possibility, that the craft would be a modular system. The rocket stage, where could be even antimatter engines could be a dock to the probe, or manned module, and it can be separated, when the craft would operate in the atmosphere.

There is introduced the conventional version of this solution. The X-37B is the small space shuttle, which has been space over 700 days. The Agena-stage can connect to those shuttles very easily, the docking ring can put in the cargo room, and then the rocket stage can push the craft in the solar system. But where NASA would use those shuttles.

The thing is that they can use those shuttles to collect data from the asteroid belt or deliver probes to the atmospheres of the gas planets like Jupiter and Saturn. When we would want to make something revolutionary, we can equip Agena stages with lightweight nuclear reactors. That allows to use of NERVA-system in those vehicles, but the political resistance against those things would be great.

So is there possible to make extreme powerful rockets without nuclear energy? One version is to use a simple pressure base system, where gas is traveling through the pump, what is connected with dynamo. That thing allows increasing the temperature in the combustion chamber and also the speed of exhaust gas would turn higher.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Daedalus

Was the Teller's mistake with the "Castle Bravo" test caused because the bomb was warm?

Was the Teller's mistake with the "Castle Bravo" test caused because the bomb was warm?

"Castle Bravo" was 15 megaton thermonuclear test in Bikini-atoll 1954 during operation "Castle", what was first attempt to build the aircraft deliverable thermonuclear weapons.  The nuclear devices predicted power was 10 megaton, but it released the higher load of energy, than it should, and that caused injuries and destruction on the entire Bikini atoll.

That detonation was the first time when in the hydrogen bombs were used the lithium booster, what mission was to work as the fusion stage. Earlier hydrogen bomb tests "Greenhouse George" and "Ivy Mike", what was the first full-scale thermonuclear or fusion device test, and the power of that detonation was10 megaton.

The problem with "Ivy Mike" was that the device used cryogenic or low-temperature fusion stage, what based liquid helium 3 (or deuterium-tritium) fusion stage, what was ignited by using fission bomb. That kind of bombs was difficult to handle and store because the cryogenic fusion stage needs extreme low temperature.

So Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam created the idea to use lithium to create the thermonuclear explosion. If lithium would work as the booster the new high-yield thermonuclear weapons could store in the room temperature. And that thing interested the military forces in that time when the power of the nuclear weapon was the most important thing in the nuclear plans.

But when the "Bravo" or "Schrimpf" what was the name of that hydrogen bomb was detonated, the power of that device was 1,5 times more powerful, than it should be. The radioactive ash flew across the Marshall-islands. And after the year's people still asks, why those famous scientists made that error? The answer would be simpler than people will realize.

The bomb was warm, which means that the atoms in the launching capsule will oscillate, and that movement in the lithium caused that the greater mass of the thermonuclear stage started to melt together when the nuclear bomb at the next of the device is exploding.  That means the nuclear device would give very high energy output, and that thing increased the power of the device.

But the disaster could happen also because of the auxiliary fission would happen in a larger area than in the previous nuclear devices. And that would increase the speed of fusion, what releases more energy than predicted.

Structure of that bomb was simple. The fusion material was in the tube, what was around the natural uranium (U-238) stick. And when the detonator launched, the system would give extreme high energy burst, because the natural uranium transforms to the plutonium 239 (PU-239) and starts the fission inside the fusion material. Uranium-238 would catch the neutron and then transforms to plutonium-239. That thing hoped to help the ignition of the fusion material.

If the fission in that stick would limit in the core of uranium, that would cause that the transformation of uranium 238 to plutonium 239 would happen in the longer area than if the entire stick would start to transform, and that causes that the critical mass will reach in the larger area than Teller and Ulam predicted, what caused rougher reaction than it should be. This might cause one of the worst nuclear disasters in the history of nuclear tests.

https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html

Ancient Indian "Virmana weapon" looks like a modern fusion test unit

Ancient Indian "Virmana weapon" looks like a modern fusion test unit

(Picture I)

1. There are similarities with modern fusion test and this "Virmana picture"

When we are looking at the picture above this text, we might see the similarities between this image and the modern fusion test equipment. In the fusion tests, the lasers would be targeted to one little ampule, what is filled by using deuterium and tritium, what is the suitable fuel for the fusion power systems.

In this image, the structure might be seen, like there are three lasers, which are targeted to one point. And maybe those characters, what are standing side of this system are the operators of this system. Here we must remember that a similar system can be used in the spacecraft, what could theoretical travel to another star, or at least to the Oort cloud of our own solar system.

2. This kind of system is planned for "Project Daedalus", the fusion-powered spacecraft

For the interstellar spacecraft, what will travel to closest stars this kind of fusion system would be suitable. In the "Project Daedalus" was planned to create the fusion motor, what would use the glass ampules, what was filled with lithium, or deuterium and tritium, and then those ampules would shoot to the center of the motor, where the laser will cause fusion in those ampules.

In some texts the "Daedalus", that is the name of the hypothetical spacecraft would use helium 3, what is taken from the atmosphere of Jupiter.  The idea of this system has been invented by the British Interplanetary Society, which is an organization, that mission is to research the long-term spaceflight, and innovate the systems for those extreme long journeys. But this version is a little bit too futuristic, and that's why it was denied.

3. The more conventional version the motor uses the glass ampules, what would be filled with fusion material.

In the "conventional version" of this hypothetical spacecraft is used the glass ampules, what would shoot into laser spot, where the fusion would start. The lasers of this system would get their power for operation from the nuclear reactor, and that means that the fusion would not be self-sustaining.

That means the lasers would operate by fission reactor and the glass ampules would shoot in the middle of the lasers by using pressurized air or normal gun ammunition. In the beginning, the system can use the normal uranium or plutonium bullets, what would shoot to the point, where they are targeted by electromagnetic radiation.

4. For slowing the speed, would need the same mass of fuel what was use for accelerating speed. 

That would increase the speed of that hypothetical craft gently, and when the speed of that craft would rise to the speed. What is the escape velocity from our own solar system, the fusion power would start by shooting the capsules, what is filled with lithium or some other fusion fuel to the focus of the lasers.

Or the next stage of those bullets might have lithium bites, what will make them very small neutron bombs. And the radiation would increase the speed of "Daedalus" into 10-15% of the speed of the light. The thing is that decreasing the speed of that craft needs the same mass of the fuel, what was used for accelerating the speed.

And this is the thing, what makes interstellar space trip very complicated thing. If we would build the "Daedalus", which is the most conventional version of the models, what are introduced to the interstellar exploration, we should find some very important and interesting from that star. There is no way to turn back or change the destiny if there would not find some very interesting planet. But that is the different story.

Picture I http://veda.wikidot.com/vimanas-the-ancient-indian-astronaut-connection

. British interplanetary society homepage: https://www.bis-space.com/

. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Interplanetary_Society

. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Daedalus

.